Most pollution and associated health risks occur near volcanic eruptions, but air quality in populated areas affected by the pollution is closely monitored. Weather conditions, especially wind direction and precipitation, significantly influence the distribution of pollution.
Residents in affected areas should monitor air quality and gas pollution forecasts regularly. It's important to be aware of the main protective measures to take when pollution levels are high. This includes staying indoors, keeping windows closed, and avoiding prolonged outdoor activities, particularly for children and individuals with heart and lung conditions.
Stay informed and take necessary precautions to protect your health during periods of increased volcanic activity.
Air quality in Iceland. The Environment Agency of Iceland. Data is updated every 10 minutes.
Gas pollution forecast. Icelandic Meteorological Office. A map shows areas in the country where sulphur pollution is expected for the next 48 hours (Icelandic)
Registration form for gas pollution in inhabited areas. Icelandic Meteorological Office (Icelandic)
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Health hazards
Health hazards due to air pollution from volcanic eruptions. A guide for the public. 4th edition. November 2022
Niebezpieczne dla zdrowia zanieczyszczenie powietrza spowodowane erupcja wulkanu. Wytyczne dla społeczeństwa. Wydanie 4, listopad 2022 r
Gas concentration values
Gas concentration values – Air pollution in the vicinity of eruption sites
Wartości stężeń gazów — zanieczyszczenie powietrza w pobliżu miejsc erupcji
Each volcano is unique and the effects of volcanic eruptions are not always the same. Volcanic eruptions can release various types of pollutants, which are mainly found in the vicinity of the eruption. The most common air pollution is due to sulfur dioxide (SO2) that spreads with the prevailing wind direction, but its concentration is highest in the immediate vicinity of the volcano.
Gases associated with volcanic eruptions are colorless but some have a characteristic smell. Sulfur dioxide smells similar to fireworks, while hydrogen sulfide (H2S) smells similar to hot springs. Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, on the other hand, are odorless but dangerous gases. Hydrogen fluoride (HF) and hydrogen chloride (HCl) have an irritating, strong and bitter smell, but gas pollution due to them is best when lava and sea meet.
Volcanic smog is air pollution that is created when sulfur dioxide (SO2), other gases and particles react with oxygen and moisture in the atmosphere with the help of sunlight. This converts sulfur dioxide (SO2) into sulfate (SO4). Additionally, volcanic smog, characterized by its distinct blue-gray hue, can accompany the eruption. Pollution from smog is not detectable on standard air quality monitors that measure sulfur dioxide. To assess the presence of haze, it is best to monitor measurements of PM1, which is a very fine particulate matter.
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Sulphur dioxide (SO2) at high levels can have health effects after only a short time, 10-15 minutes. See brochure Health hazards due to air pollution from volcanic eruptions.
When people are exposed to SO2, it changes the moist surface of mucous membranes in sulphuric acid, which irritates the eyes, nose and throat. However, most of the SO2 entering the body through the airway (nasal and oral) does not accumulate and damage to internal organs is not described. Because of this, it is important in the response to SO2 pollution that people breathe calmly, through their noses and avoid exercise.
Harmful effects of SO2 are associated with exposure of the lower respiratory tract to the lungs. In addition, more severe symptoms may develop, such as asthma and pulmonary swelling/oedema.
The effects of SO2 can be divided into short-term effects due to sudden, short-term pollution (minutes, hours), and long-term effects which may occur during periods of sustained pollution (days, months, years).
Harmful concentrations of sulphur dioxide
When assessing the risks and responses to pollution caused by SO2, health protection limits have been issued for shorter periods (minutes, hours), of 350 μg/m3, and for longer periods (day or more) of 125 μg/m3. However, it is difficult to directly relate certain values to particular characteristics because the effects of SO2 are highly individualized.
The short-term effects at low concentrations are primarily eye, nose and throat irritation and even headache. If levels go higher, for example over 600 μg/m3, cough can be transmitted, especially in vulnerable individuals* or individuals with underlying diseases.
When the concentration has reached over 2600 μ/m3, everyone develops symptoms, respiratory tract irritation, coughing and headache. Healthy individuals are unlikely to develop severe symptoms until the concentration rises to under 9000 μ/m3. Life-threatening symptoms do not appear until the concentration exceeds 150,000 μ/m3.
Children
Evidence suggests that children are generally more sensitive than adults; children breathe both faster and the volume of air they draw in, based on their body weight, is higher than in adults. In addition, children breathe through their mouths rather than through their noses. Children are therefore given the benefit of the doubt and their risk is defined as individuals with underlying illnesses.
Many (but not all) studies also show that SO2 contamination can cause reduced foetal growth and pregnancy outcomes, as well as delivery of babies.
Vulnerable individuals: Children, pregnant women, adults with asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and cardiovascular disease, and people aged sixty years and older.
What is volcanic smog?
Volcanic smog is an air pollution that forms when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and other gases and particles react with oxygen and moisture in the atmosphere with the help of sunlight. This process converts sulfur dioxide gas (SO2) to sulfate particles (SO4) and changes the pollution from gas to solid particles. Pollution due to volcanic smog is therefore not detectable on normal SO2 gas detectors.
How is volcanic smog detected in the atmosphere?
The presence of volcanic smog is best assessed by monitoring fine particulate matter (PM1). In addition, measurements of PM2,5 can also give some information about the presence of volcanic smog. The Environmental Agency´s website (loftgaedi.is) provides real-time measurements of air quality and pollution caused by particulate matter, simplifying results with color-coded indicators.
What are the health effects of volcanic smog?
Volcanic smog is generally more irritating than particulate matter due to car traffic. Exposure to volcanic smog can result in drowsiness, headaches, eye and throat irritation as well as respiratory symptoms. Fine particulates (PM1 and PM2,5) pose significant health risks as they can easily reach deep into the lungs and therefore into the body. All individuals can feel some effects from volcanic smog but children and adult individuals with underlying heart- and lung diseases should avoid staying outdoors for longer periods as well as strenuous activity in polluted areas.
How to react when experiencing symptoms due to volcanic smog exposure
Those experiencing symptoms due to exposure to volcanic smog should stay indoors, close windows and rest. If the symptoms persist or are not relieved, seek assistance at your local health clinic or call 1700 for advice.
Those individuals who use inhaled medications for asthma- or lung diseases should ensure that they have them available and use them as prescribed. It is possible that those individuals may need to adjust their dosage during high levels of volcanic air pollution or if the symptoms persist. Adjustment of dosages should always be done in cooperation with health care professionals.
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Eruption in Reykjanes - recommendations for eruption pollution. Environment Agency (Icelandic)
Guidelines during volcanic eruption. Environment Agency (Icelandic)
What can everyone do to protect themselves against air pollution during a volcanic eruption?
Familiarize yourself with the Environment Agency's air quality map, and the Icelandic Met Office's gas pollution forecast, and follow the advice of the health authorities.
Know basic responses, such as staying indoors and closing windows if pollution is high. Anything that reduces the presence of pollution helps. If it is necessary to be outdoors for a short time in very heavy pollution, it is useful to breathe through a wet cloth. Breathe slowly through your nose. Conventional face masks do little or nothing against air pollution from volcanic eruptions, but the use of gas masks is not recommended for the general public.
Vulnerable individuals should consult their healthcare provider regarding medications and other possible benefits.
Measures to prevent sulfur dioxide (SO2) pollution indoors
Close windows and reduce access to front doors.
Turn off ventilation where applicable.
Ventilate as soon as the air quality outside improves.
Volcanic Ash - Health Hazards. A guide for the public. 3rd edition. November 2023
Popiół wulkaniczny – zagrożenia dla zdrowia. Wytyczne dla ludności. Wydanie 3. Listopad 2023 r.
The use of gas heaters in homes. The Department of Civil Protection´s guidelines (slightly edited). Published February 2024
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We are expected to feel anxious and worried when events occur over which we have little control. Many experienced this during COVID-19, and many people also feel uneasiness in the earthquakes in Reykjanes, the capital area, and other areas. In times like these, taking care of your mental health and supporting those close to you is especially important.
On the website www.heilsuvera.is, you can find helpful information on how to take care of your mental health, e.g. when you experience a lot of stress. Information on strategies to reduce anxiety (Icelandic). The importance of being together with children (Icelandic) is also pointed out, which is not the least important in times of uncertainty to maintain calm and routine.
It can be expected to feel anxious and worried
The first thing to remember is that worry and anxiety are normal reactions in situations like this. Throughout history, healthy fear and anxiety have taught us to avoid danger and thus saved our lives. It is, therefore, perfectly normal to feel these feelings now, but it is also important not to let them take over.
We need to work through these concerns constructively, listen carefully to instructions, and focus on the factors we can control rather than those we cannot control.
If you experience constant symptoms, e.g. lack of concentration, numbness, fear, sleep problems, anxiety, physical and mental weakness, and crying, it is essential to seek help.
For many, it is enough to talk to their loved ones; others need more support, and visiting primary healthcare is good. You can make an appointment at your primary healthcare or contact a nurse directly via online chat at www.heilsuvera.is
You can also contact the Red Cross Helpline 1717 (+354 580 1710), which is open 24/7.
The correct response
It is essential to pay attention to safety at home, as recommended on the Civil Protection's website, and learn about the correct response to earthquakes (Icelandic) and volcanic eruptions (Icelandic). Acquiring information is something we can control. On the other hand, we cannot control if or when the forces of nature take over, so it is not helpful to fixate on it.
A daily routine is important
It helps you pay attention to your daily routine, eat healthy food, get enough sleep, exercise daily, and have nurturing relationships with others. Find something fun to do or look forward to every day, whether it's a morning drink, an afternoon walk, quality time with the family, a conversation with a good friend, a swim, or reading good books. Practical tasks, such as housework and maintenance, which leave visible results, also positively affect well-being. These things are essential every day, but especially in times like these.
Remember that fear and worry beyond usual preventive measures do not improve our safety. Research has shown, however, that positive emotions can strengthen mental strength and resilience, and therefore, a good reason not to lose joy in times of uncertainty but to find ways to focus on what gives life value.
Be informed and talk to each other
The experience of children is often different from that of adults. They can become more nervous and insecure and show various behavioural problems. Adults must be aware of how they speak in the presence of children, educate them about what is happening, and tell them that the country has various forces that we must learn to live with. Emphasis must be placed on children being allowed to ask questions and be answered in simple language, depending on their age. Children are sensitive to the feelings and reactions of adults, so it is essential to stay calm as much as possible, explain the situation, allow them to talk about their fears, and reassure them. If the child experiences a constant threat and anxiety that significantly affects their quality of life, it is crucial to seek help.
The Reykjanesbær website provides valuable information and good advice for parents regarding anxiety and insecurity in children and teenagers (Icelandic).
Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management. National Commissioner of the Police. Information from the Public Defender's Office.
The Environment Agency of Iceland. Ambient air quality.
The Icelandic Food and Veterinary Authority. Information concerning animals and food due to soda pollution.
The Icelandic Meteorological Office. Information on the distribution of ash and gas pollution from volcanic eruptions.
The University of Iceland. Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland (Icelandic)
Articles and Research
Effects of the Holuhraun lava eruption on the environment and health. Iceland University of Agriculture and Iceland Meteorological Office 2017 (Icelandic)
Service provider
Directorate of Health